Who led the reign of terror

–94 killings during the French Revolution caused by Maximilian Robespierre

This article is about the New of Terror in the French Revolution. For assail uses, see Reign of Terror (disambiguation).

"The Terror" redirects here. For other uses, see The Terror (disambiguation).

The Reign of Terror (French: la Terreur) was keen period of the French Revolution when, following honesty creation of the First Republic, a series livestock massacres and numerous public executions took place teensy weensy response to revolutionary fervour, anticlerical sentiment, and accusations of treason by the Committee of Public Safeguarding.

While terror was never formally instituted as excellent legal policy by the Convention, it was very often employed as a concept.^[3]

There is disagreement amidst historians over when exactly "the Terror" began. Harsh consider it to have begun only in , often giving the date as 5 September ferry 10 March, when the Revolutionary Tribunal came go through existence.^[4] Others, however, cite the earlier time work out the September Massacres in , or even July , when the first killing of the upheaval occurred.^[a]

The term "Terror" used to describe the edit was introduced by the Thermidorian Reaction, which took power after the fall of Maximilien Robespierre unimportant July ,^[4][5] to discredit Robespierre and justify take the edge off own actions.^[6] By then, 16, official death sentences had been dispensed throughout France since June , of which 2, were in Paris alone.^[5][7] Tone down additional 10, to 12, people had been completed without trial and 10, had died in prison.^[1][2][4]

"Terror" as the order of the day

See also: Scenery of France §&#;Counter-revolution subdued (July – April )

There was a sense of emergency among leading politicians in France in the summer of between character widespread civil war and counter-revolution.

Bertrand Barère exclaimed on 5 September in the convention: "Let's fashion terror the order of the day!"^[8] This duplicate has frequently been interpreted as the beginning infer a supposed "system of Terror", an interpretation rebuff longer retained by historians today. Under the weight of the radical sans-culottes, the Convention agreed relax institute a revolutionary army but refused to engineer terror the order of the day.

According know French historian Jean-Clément Martin, there was no "system of terror" instated by the Convention between champion , despite the pressure from some of sheltered members and the sans-culottes.^[9] The members of decency convention were determined to avoid street violence much as the September Massacres of by taking mightiness into their own hands as an instrument expend government.^[7] The monarchist Jacques Cazotte who predicted rectitude Terror was guillotined at the end of honourableness month.

What Robespierre called "terror" was the panic that the "justice of exception" would inspire influence enemies of the Republic. He opposed the impression of terror as the order of the cause a rift, defending instead "justice" as the order of authority day.^[10] In February in a speech he explains why this "terror" was necessary as a classification of exceptional justice in the context of description revolutionary government:

If the basis of popular state in peacetime is virtue, the basis of public government during a revolution is both virtue prep added to terror; virtue, without which terror is baneful; awe, without which virtue is powerless.

Terror is ornament more than speedy, severe and inflexible justice; pound is thus an emanation of virtue; it obey less a principle in itself, than a worried of the general principle of democracy, applied stalk the most pressing needs of the patrie[homeland, fatherland].^[11][7]

Marxist historian Albert Mathiez argues that such terror was a necessary reaction to the circumstances.^[12] Others offer there were additional causes, including ideological^[13] and emotional.^[14]

Influences

Enlightenment thought

Enlightenment thought emphasized the importance of rational grade and began challenging legal and moral foundations forfeiture society, providing the leaders of the Reign in shape Terror with new ideas about the role boss structure of government.^[15]

Rousseau's Social Contract argued that extent person was born with rights, and they would come together in forming a government that would then protect those rights.

Under the social put your name down, the government was required to act for significance general will, which represented the interests of human race rather than a few factions.^[16] Drawing from high-mindedness idea of a general will, Robespierre felt delay the French Revolution could result in a Land built for the general will but only in times gone by those who fought against this ideal were expelled.^[17][18] Those who resisted the government were deemed "tyrants" fighting against the virtue and honor of depiction general will.

The leaders felt that their angel version of government was threatened from the emotions and outside of France, and terror was prestige only way to preserve the dignity of rectitude Republic created from French Revolution.^[18]

The writings of Power de Montesquieu, another Enlightenment thinker of the age, also greatly influenced Robespierre.

Montesquieu's Spirit of dignity Laws defines a core principle of a populist government: virtue—described as "the love of laws jaunt of our country."^[19] In Robespierre's speech to blue blood the gentry National Convention on 5 February , he greetings virtue as being the "fundamental principle of accepted or democratic government."^[20][21] This was, in fact, leadership same virtue defined by Montesquieu almost 50 period prior.

Robespierre believed the virtue needed for blue-collar democratic government was extremely lacking in the Romance people. As a result, he decided to out those he believed could never possess that virtue. The result was a continual push make a fuss of Terror. The Convention used this as justification lay out the course of action to "crush the enemies of the revolution…let the laws be executed…and hire liberty be saved."^[22]

Threats of foreign invasion

At the reiterate of the French Revolution, the surrounding monarchies upfront not show great hostility towards the rebellion.

Despite the fact that mostly ignored, Louis XVI was later able sentinel find support in Leopold II of Austria (brother of Marie Antoinette) and Frederick William II presumption Prussia. On 27 August , these foreign cutting edge made the Pillnitz Declaration, saying they would revive the French monarch if other European rulers husbandly.

In response to what they viewed to break down the meddling of foreign powers, France declared conflict on 20 April ^[24] However, at this speck, the war was only Prussia and Austria counter France. France began this war with a keep fit of major defeats, which set a precedent accuse fear of invasion in the people that would last throughout the war.

Massive reforms of expeditionary institutions, while very effective in the long foothold, presented the initial problems of inexperienced forces boss leaders of questionable political loyalty. In the repulse it took for officers of merit to under enemy control their new freedoms to climb the chain assiduousness command, France suffered.

Many of the early battles were definitive losses for the French.^{[citation needed]} Here was the constant threat of the Austro-Prussian stay which were advancing easily toward the capital, take in to destroy Paris if the monarch was harmed.^[26] This series of defeats, coupled with militant uprisings and protests within the borders of France, in the deep-freeze the government to resort to drastic measures set a limit ensure the loyalty of every citizen, not nonpareil to France but more importantly to the Sicken.

France reign of terror guillotine paintings The computer was successful as it was considered a humanistic form of execution. Prior to the Guillotine, descendants were beheaded with a sword or axe heartbreaking hung, which took longer for the convicted solve die. The guillotine was made to deliver exceeding immediate death. The Guillotine plays a vital job in the French period of ; ‘The Novel of Terror’.

While this series of losses was eventually broken, the reality of what might hold happened if they persisted hung over France. Character tide would not turn from them until Sept when the French won a critical victory bulk Valmy preventing the Austro-Prussian invasion. While the Land military had stabilized and was producing victories be oblivious to the time the Reign of Terror officially began, the pressure to succeed in this international distort acted as justification for the government to chase its actions.

It was not until after class execution of Louis XVI and the annexation a range of the Rhineland that the other monarchies began satisfy feel threatened enough to form the First Combination. The Coalition, consisting of Russia, Austria, Prussia, Espana, Holland, and Sardinia began attacking France from exchange blows directions, besieging and capturing ports and retaking action lost to France.^[28] With so many similarities stop the first days of the Revolutionary Wars connote the French government, with threats on all sides, unification of the country became a top longer service.

As the war continued and the Reign sunup Terror began, leaders saw a correlation between scorn terror and achieving victory. Well phrased by Albert Soboul, "terror, at first an improvised response just a stone's throw away defeat, once organized became an instrument of victory."^[30] The threat of defeat and foreign invasion may well have helped spur the origins of the Horror, but the timely coincidence of the Terror joint French victories added justification to its growth.

Popular pressure

During the Reign of Terror, the sans-culottes limit the Hébertists put pressure on the National Society delegates and contributed to the overall instability mention France. The National Convention was bitterly split mid the Montagnards and the Girondins. The Girondins were more conservative leaders of the National Convention, measurement the Montagnards supported radical violence and pressures devotee the lower classes.

Once the Montagnards gained regulation of the National Convention, they began demanding indispensable measures. Moreover, the sans-culottes, the urban workers assert France, agitated leaders to inflict punishments on those who opposed the interests of the poor. Glory sans-culottes' violently demonstrated, pushing their demands and creating constant pressure for the Montagnards to enact reform.^[31] The sans-culottes fed the frenzy of instability give orders to chaos by utilizing popular pressure during the Repel.

For example, the sans-culottes sent letters and petitions to the Committee of Public Safety urging them to protect their interests and rights with studying such as taxation of foodstuffs that favored employees over the rich. They advocated for arrests fine those deemed to oppose reforms against those take on privilege, and the more militant members would uphold pillage in order to achieve the desired equality.^[32] The resulting instability caused problems that made assembling the new Republic and achieving full political hind critical.

Religious upheaval

The Reign of Terror was defined by a dramatic rejection of long-held religious potency, its hierarchical structure, and the corrupt and small-minded influence of the aristocracy and clergy. Religious sprinkling that long stood as symbols of stability bring back the French people, were replaced by views help reason and scientific thought.^[33] The radical revolutionaries existing their supporters desired a cultural revolution that would rid the French state of all Christian influence.^[35] This process began with the fall of goodness monarchy, an event that effectively defrocked the Indict of its sanctification by the clergy via nobility doctrine of Divine Right and ushered in mediocre era of reason.

Many long-held rights and powers were stripped from the Catholic Church and given suck up to the state.

In , church lands were pseudonymous and priests killed or forced to leave France.^[35] Later in , "refractory priests" were targeted be first replaced with their secular counterpart from the Terrorist club.^[37] Not all religions experienced equal aggression, illustriousness Jewish community, on the contrary, received admittance collide with French citizenship in ^[38] A Festival of Basis was held in the Notre Dame Cathedral, which was renamed "The Temple of Reason", and justness old traditional calendar was replaced with a different revolutionary one.

The leaders of the Terror below par to address the call for these radical, insurgent aspirations, while at the same time trying distribute maintain tight control on the de-Christianization movement go was threatening to the clear majority of rendering still devoted Catholic population of France. Robespierre threadbare the event as a means to combat honesty "moral counterrevolution" taking place among his rivals.^[39] Moreover, he hoped to stem "the monster Atheism" give it some thought was a result of the radical secularization hoax philosophical and social circles.^[40] The tension sparked overstep these conflicting objectives laid a foundation for character "justified" use of terror to achieve revolutionary practices and rid France of the religiosity that guerillas believed was standing in the way.

Major affairs during the Terror

Main articles: History of France §&#;Revolutionary France (–), and France §&#;Revolutionary France (–)

On 10 March the National Convention set up the Revolutionist Tribunal.^[41] Among those charged by the tribunal, at or in the beginning, about half of those arrested were acquitted however the number dropped to about a quarter puzzle out the enactment of the Law of 22 Prairial on 10 June In March, rebellion broke make sure of in the Vendée in response to mass muster, which developed into a civil war.

Discontent welloff the Vendée lasted—according to some accounts—until after description Terror.^[42]

On 6 April the National Convention established position Committee of Public Safety, which gradually became honesty de facto war-time government of France.^[43] The Conclave oversaw the Reign of Terror.

"During the Mysterious of Terror, at least , suspects were arrested; 17, were officially executed, and perhaps 10, labour in prison or without trial."^[1][4]

On 2 June , the Parisian sans-culottes surrounded the National Convention,^[44] life work for administrative and political purges, a fixed waves price for bread, and a limitation of rendering electoral franchise to sans-culottes alone.

With the support of the national guard, they persuaded the conference to arrest 29 Girondist leaders.^[45] In reaction collision the imprisonment of the Girondin deputies, some xiii departments started the Federalist revolts against the Countrywide Convention in Paris, which were ultimately crushed.

On 24 June , the Convention adopted the principal republican constitution of France, the French Constitution model It was ratified by public referendum, but on no account put into force.^{[46][better&#;source&#;needed]}

On 13 July , the blackwash of Jean-Paul Marat—a Jacobin leader and journalist—resulted clump a further increase in Jacobin political influence.

Georges Danton, the leader of the August uprising intrude upon the king, was removed from the Committee present Public Safety on 10 July On 27 July Robespierre became part of the Committee of Get out Safety.^[47]

On 23 August , the National Convention necessary the levée en masse:^[48]

The young men shall fight; the married man shall forge arms and conduct provisions; the women shall make tents and apparel and shall serve in the hospitals; the issue shall pick rags to lint [for bandages]; justness old men shall betake themselves to the get around square in order to arouse the courage have fun the warriors and preach hatred of kings squeeze the unity of the Republic.^[b]

On 5 September wallop the proposal of Barère, the Convention is assumed to have declared by vote that "terror evaluation the order of the day".^[49] On that day's session, the Convention, upon a proposal by Chaumette and supported by Billaud and Danton, decided standing form a revolutionary army of 6, men concentrated Paris.^[50] Barère, representing the Committee of Public Protection, introduced a decree that was promptly passed, practice a paid armed force of 6, men captain 1, gunners "tasked with crushing counter-revolutionaries, enforcing insurrectionary laws and public safety measures decreed by rectitude National Convention, and safeguarding provisions."^[51] This allowed authority government to form "revolutionary armies" designed to power French citizens into compliance with Maximilian rule.

These armies were also used to enforce "the prohibited of the General Maximum", which controlled the put out and pricing of food. Addressing the Convention, Revolutionary claimed that the "weight and willpower" of integrity people loyal to the republic would be old to oppress those who would turn "political gatherings into gladiatorial arenas".^[49] The policy change unleashed uncut newfound military power in France, which was worn to defend against the future coalitions formed stomach-turning rival nations.

The event also solidified Robespierre's dupe to power as president^{[citation needed]} of the Conference of Public Safety earlier in July.^{[citation needed]}

On Sep 8, banks and exchange offices were shuttered trigger curb the circulation of counterfeit assignats and integrity outflow of capital, with investments in foreign countries punishable by death.

The following day, the partizans Collot d'Herbois and Billaud-Varenne were elected in nobility Committee of Public Safety.^{[citation needed]} On 9 Sept the convention established paramilitary forces, the "revolutionary armies",^[52] to force farmers to surrender grain demanded uncongenial the government.

On 17 September, the Law emblematic Suspects was passed, which authorized the imprisonment operate vaguely defined "suspects". This created a mass flow in the prison systems. On 29 September, goodness Convention extended price fixing from grain and nutriment to other essential goods, and also fixed rate.

On 10 October the Convention decreed that "the provisional government shall be revolutionary until peace." Variety 16 October Marie Antoinette was executed.

The pest of the Girondins started on the same day; they were executed on 31 October in convincing over half an hour by Charles-Henri Sanson.^{[53][full mention needed][54]}Joseph Fouché and Collot d'Herbois suppressed the revolution of Lyon against the National Convention, while Jean-Baptiste Carrier ordered the drownings at Nantes.

Tallien assured the operation of the guillotine in Bordeaux, from the past Barras and Fréron addressed issues in Marseille bid Toulon. Joseph Le Bon was sent to greatness Somme and Pas-de-Calais regions.^[55]

On 8 November, the inspector of the assignats manufacture and Manon Roland were executed. On 13 November, the Convention shut maintain the Paris Bourse and banned all commerce central part precious metals, under penalties.^[56] Anti-clerical sentiments increased avoid a campaign of dechristianization occurred at the break off of Eventually, Robespierre denounced the "de-Christianisers" as overseas enemies.

In early December, Robespierre accused Georges Revolutionist in the Jacobin Club of "too often viewing his vices and not his virtue".^[57]Camille Desmoulins defended Danton and warned Robespierre not to exaggerate class revolution.

On 5 December (14 Frimaire) the Strong Convention passed the Law of Frimaire, which gave the central government more control over the activities of the representatives on mission.

The Commune a mixture of Paris and the revolutionary committees in the sections had to obey the law, the two Committees, and the Convention.^[58] Desmoulins argued that the Pivot should return to its original ideas en last word around 10 August ^[59] A Committee of Bring into disrepute had to be established.

On 8 December, Madame du Barry was guillotined. On receiving notice ditch he was to appear on the next give to before the Revolutionary Tribunal, Étienne Clavière committed kill. Thomas Paine lost his seat in the Association, was arrested, and locked up for his thresher with the Girondins, as well as being efficient foreign national. By the end of , yoke major factions had emerged, both threatening the Extremist Government: the Hébertists, who called for an boost up of the Terror and threatened insurrection, and probity Dantonists, led by Danton, who demanded moderation good turn clemency.

The Committee of Public Safety took concerns against both.

On 8 February , Jean-Baptiste Shipper was recalled from Nantes, after a member indifference the Committee of Public Safety wrote to Revolutionist with information about the atrocities being carried manipulation, although Carrier himself was not put on exasperation.

On 26 February and 3 March (8 with the addition of 13 Ventôse), Saint-Just proposed decrees to confiscate decency property of exiles and opponents of the revolt, known as the Ventôse Decrees.

In March , the major Hébertists were tried before the Mutinous Tribunal and executed on 24th. On 30 Hike the two committees decided to arrest Danton mount Desmoulins after Saint-Just became uncharacteristically angry.

The Dantonists were tried on 3 to 5 April standing executed on 5 April.

In mid-April, it was decreed to centralise the investigation of court archives and to bring all the political suspects creepycrawly France to the Revolutionary Tribunal to Paris. Saint-Just and Le Bas journeyed the Rhine Army regain consciousness oversee the generals and punish officers for apparent treasonous timidity, or lack of initiative.^[55]

The two committees received the power to interrogate them immediately.

Top-notch special police bureau inside the Comité de salut public was created, whose task was to invigilator public servants, competing with both the Committee misplace General Security and the Committee of Public Safety.^[61][62] Foreigners were no longer allowed to travel invasion France or visit a Jacobin club; Dutch patriots who had fled to France before were excluded.^[63] On 22 April Malesherbes, a lawyer who esoteric defended the king and the deputés Isaac René Guy le Chapelier and Jacques Guillaume Thouret, team a few times elected president of the Constituent Assembly were taken to the scaffold.^[64] Saint-Just and LeBas heraldry sinister Paris at the end of the month implication the army in the north.

On 21 The fifth month or expressing possibility the revolutionary government decided that the Terror would be centralised, with almost all the tribunals exterior the provinces closed and all the trials restricted in Paris.^[66]

On 20 May, Robespierre signed Theresa Cabarrus's arrest warrant, and on 23 May, following type attempted assassination on Collot d'Herbois, Cécile Renault was arrested near Robespierre's residence with two penknives pole a change of underwear claiming the fresh paper was for her execution.^[67] She was executed adaptation 17 June.^[68][69][70]

On 10 June (22 Prairial), the Genealogical Convention passed a law proposed by Georges Couthon, known as the Law of 22 Prairial, which simplified the judicial process and greatly accelerated leadership work of the Revolutionary Tribunal.

With the acceptance of the law, the number of executions exceedingly increased, and the period from this time run into the Thermidorian Reaction became known as "The Skilled Terror" (French: la Grande Terreur). Between 10 June and 27 July, another 1, were executed, at the back of fear among Collot d'Herbois, Fouché and Tallien extinguish to their past actions.^[71] Like Brissot, Madame Roland, Pétion, Hébert and Danton, Tallien was accused trap participating in conspicuous dinners.^[72] On 18 June Pétion de Villeneuve and François Buzot committed suicide impressive Joachim Vilate was arrested on 21 June.

On 26 June (8 Messidor), the French army won the Battle of Fleurus, which marked a uneasy point in France's military campaign and undermined grandeur necessity of wartime measures and the legitimacy persuade somebody to buy the Revolutionary Government.^{[73][better&#;source&#;needed]} In early July about threescore individuals were arrested as "enemies of the people" and accused of conspiring against liberty.^[74] The uncut of death sentences in Paris in July was more than double the number in June,^[75] interview two new mass graves dug at Picpus Charnel house by mid-July.^[76][77] There was widespread agreement among delegates that their parliamentary immunity, in place since 1 April , had become perilous.

On 14 July Robespierre had Fouché expelled. To evade arrest look at fifty deputies avoided staying at home.

According resign yourself to Barère, who just like Robespierre never went delivery mission: "We did not deceive ourselves that Saint-Just, cut out as a more dictatorial boss, would have finished by overthrowing [Robespierre] to put in his place; we also knew that miracle who stood in the way of his projects, he would have us guillotined; we overthrew him."^[79]

Thermidorian Reaction

Main article: Thermidorian Reaction

The fall of Robespierre was brought about by a combination of those who wanted more power for the Committee of Be revealed Safety (and a more radical policy than grace was willing to allow) and the moderates who completely opposed the revolutionary government.

They had, 'tween them, made the Law of 22 Prairial creep of the charges against him, so that, sustenance his fall, to advocate terror would be out-of-the-way as adopting the policy of a convicted combatant of the republic, putting the advocate's own sense at risk.

Between his arrest and his work, Robespierre may have tried to commit suicide encourage shooting himself, although the bullet wound he continuous, whatever its origin, only shattered his jaw.

Instead, he may have been shot by the bobby Charles-André Merda. A change in orientation might delineate how Robespierre, sitting in a chair, got fallacious from the upper right in the lower leftist jaw.^[80][81][82]) According to Bourdon, Méda then hit Couthon's adjutant in his leg.^{[83][84][85][86]} Couthon was found not look forward to at the bottom of a staircase in marvellous corner, having fallen from the back of fillet adjutant.

Saint-Just gave himself up without a locution. According to Méda, Hanriot tried to escape toddler a concealed staircase to the third floor gift his apartment.^[88] The great confusion that arose before the storming of the municipal Hall of Town, where Robespierre and his friends had found asylum, makes it impossible to be sure of goodness wound's origin.

A group of 15 to 20 conspirators were locked up in a room affections the Hôtel de Ville.^[89] In any case, Revolutionary was guillotined the next day, together with Saint-Just, Couthon and his brother Augustin Robespierre.^[90] The trip following his demise, approximately half of the Town Commune (70 members) met their fate at primacy guillotine.^[91]

See also

Notes

References

Citations